Childcaregiving and Children’s Well-being Among the BaYaka Hunter-Gatherers and Yambe Fisher-Farmers in the Republic of the Congo

Abstract (English)

Receiving care from individuals other than the biological mother—known as allomothering—is a widespread feature of child-rearing across human societies. While substantial literature suggests that allomothering may be associated with child health, its impact on children’s broader well-being remains underexplored and subject to debate. Recent studies examining the relationship between childcare and physical health outcomes—particularly child growth metrics such as height-for-age and weight-for-height—have found few and inconsistent associations, highlighting the need for broader, multidimensional investigations into the effects of caregiving on child well-being, especially beyond physical development. To address this gap, we examined how various forms of childcare—provided by both mothers and other caregivers—influence children’s physical, social, cognitive, and emotional development. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 50 BaYaka hunter-gatherer mothers and 20 Yambe fisher-farmer mothers in a village in the Republic of the Congo in 2025. For each of their children under age 13, we collected detailed data on co-residence, sources of allomothering (e.g., fathers, maternal grandparents, paternal grandparents, siblings, mother's siblings, father's siblings, maternal distant kin, paternal distant kin and non-kin), types of caregiving, and maternal assessments of physical health, social behavior, emotional regulation, and cognitive development. Our dataset spans from infancy through middle childhood, offering insight into how caregiving roles shift as children age and how mothers perceive their children’s developmental trajectories. Furthermore, our data explore how childcare practices may differ between BaYaka hunter-gatherers and Yambe fisher-farmers living in the same village. Our findings will challenge the narrow focus on physical health in previous studies and highlight the importance of understanding allomothering within the broader context of child well-being. By integrating ethnographic insights and examining the holistic impact of allomothering, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how caregiving practices influence child development, especially in diverse cultural contexts.